Quarter 2

Track Yourself

Vocabulary for data collection, surveys, samples, graphs, patterns, correlation, causation, and honest conclusions.

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Published vocabulary

27 terms in the standard AQR format.

Start with the plain-language meaning, then use the fuller definition and sentence stem as the term becomes familiar.

Quarter-essential
Bias
Full definition
Bias is a systematic influence that pushes data collection, measurement, selection, analysis, or interpretation in a particular direction. Bias can be intentional or unintentional.
Plain language
Something in the process that unfairly tilts the result.
How we use it in AQR
You will look for bias in survey wording, who responds, what gets measured, and how results are displayed.
Example question or sentence stem
A possible source of bias is ______.
Quarter-essential
Causation
Full definition
Causation is a relationship in which a change in one factor produces a change in another. Establishing causation usually requires stronger evidence and design than simply observing a correlation.
Plain language
One thing actually helps cause the other to change.
How we use it in AQR
You will ask what kind of study or evidence would be needed before claiming that one variable caused another.
Example question or sentence stem
This does not establish causation because ______.
Quarter-essential
Correlation
Full definition
Correlation is a statistical relationship in which two variables tend to vary together. Correlation describes association, not proof that one variable causes the other.
Plain language
Two things tend to change together.
How we use it in AQR
You will identify correlations in student and media data while resisting causal language that the evidence cannot support.
Example question or sentence stem
The data show a correlation between ______ and ______.
Quarter-essential
Dataset
Full definition
A dataset is an organized collection of related data, usually arranged so observations and variables can be identified, compared, summarized, and analyzed.
Plain language
A group of related data kept together for analysis.
How we use it in AQR
In Q2, you will build or use a manageable dataset and keep its structure clear enough to make honest claims.
Example question or sentence stem
This dataset contains ______.
Quarter-essential
Distribution
Full definition
A distribution describes how the values of a variable are spread across possible values or categories, including where values cluster, how much they vary, and whether unusual values appear.
Plain language
The overall shape and spread of the data.
How we use it in AQR
You will describe more than one average by noticing clusters, gaps, spread, and unusual values.
Example question or sentence stem
The distribution shows ______.
Quarter-essential
Leading question
Full definition
A leading question is worded in a way that encourages, suggests, or pressures a particular response instead of allowing a neutral answer.
Plain language
A question that nudges people toward one answer.
How we use it in AQR
Before collecting survey data, you will revise questions that contain assumptions, emotional wording, or a preferred answer.
Example question or sentence stem
This question is leading because ______.
Quarter-essential
Observation
Full definition
An observation is one recorded case, person, event, object, time period, or response in a dataset. In a table, an observation is often represented by one row.
Plain language
One case or recorded item in the data.
How we use it in AQR
You will identify what each row or entry represents before making graphs or summaries.
Example question or sentence stem
Each observation represents ______.
Quarter-essential
Outlier
Full definition
An outlier is an observation or value that lies noticeably far from most other values in a dataset. Outliers may be errors, unusual cases, or important information.
Plain language
A value that is far away from most of the others.
How we use it in AQR
You will investigate outliers instead of automatically deleting them or letting them silently distort a summary.
Example question or sentence stem
This outlier may affect ______.
Quarter-essential
Pattern
Full definition
A pattern is a noticeable regularity, trend, difference, repetition, or relationship in data. A pattern may be meaningful, accidental, weak, or caused by another factor.
Plain language
Something in the data that happens in a noticeable way.
How we use it in AQR
You will describe patterns carefully before deciding what they mean or whether they support a claim.
Example question or sentence stem
A pattern I notice is ______.
Quarter-essential
Population
Full definition
A population is the complete group of people, objects, events, or cases that a question or conclusion is intended to describe.
Plain language
The whole group you want to understand.
How we use it in AQR
You will name the population before deciding whether your sample can reasonably speak for it.
Example question or sentence stem
The population we want to understand is ______.
Quarter-essential
Representative
Full definition
A sample is representative when it reflects the larger population in the characteristics that matter for the question. A representative sample reduces, but does not remove, uncertainty.
Plain language
Similar enough to the larger group to support a fair conclusion.
How we use it in AQR
You will decide whether the sample gives a balanced picture or leaves important groups out.
Example question or sentence stem
This sample may not be representative because ______.
Quarter-essential
Sample
Full definition
A sample is the smaller group of people, objects, events, or cases actually measured, surveyed, or observed in order to learn about a larger population.
Plain language
The part of the whole group that you actually collected data from.
How we use it in AQR
You will compare your sample with the population and state who was included or missing.
Example question or sentence stem
Our sample includes ______.
Recognize and begin using
Categorical data
Full definition
Categorical data place observations into names, labels, or groups, such as grade level, transportation type, or preferred study location.
Plain language
Data that sort things into groups or labels.
How we use it in AQR
You will count, compare, and display categories without treating their labels as quantities.
Example question or sentence stem
This variable is categorical because ______.
Recognize and begin using
Confounding variable
Full definition
A confounding variable is another factor related to the variables being studied that could partly or fully explain an observed relationship.
Plain language
Another factor that could explain why two things seem connected.
How we use it in AQR
When you see a correlation, you will name plausible confounding variables before suggesting causation.
Example question or sentence stem
A possible confounding variable is ______.
Recognize and begin using
Frequency
Full definition
Frequency is the number of times a value, category, or event occurs in a dataset.
Plain language
How often something happens or appears.
How we use it in AQR
Frequencies help you build tables and graphs and compare common and uncommon responses.
Example question or sentence stem
The most frequent response was ______.
Recognize and begin using
Mean
Full definition
The mean is the sum of all numerical values divided by the number of values. It uses every value and can be strongly affected by extreme values.
Plain language
The arithmetic average.
How we use it in AQR
You will decide whether the mean gives a useful summary or whether outliers make it misleading.
Example question or sentence stem
The mean may be affected by ______.
Recognize and begin using
Median
Full definition
The median is the middle value when numerical data are ordered. If there are two middle values, the median is their mean.
Plain language
The middle value in an ordered list.
How we use it in AQR
You will compare the median with the mean when data are skewed or contain outliers.
Example question or sentence stem
The median may better represent ______ because ______.
Recognize and begin using
Numerical data
Full definition
Numerical data are values recorded as numbers for which arithmetic operations or meaningful quantitative comparisons can be made, such as time, distance, count, or rating.
Plain language
Data recorded as meaningful numbers.
How we use it in AQR
You will choose appropriate summaries and graphs based partly on whether a variable is numerical.
Example question or sentence stem
This variable is numerical because ______.
Recognize and begin using
Proportion
Full definition
A proportion compares a part with the whole and may be written as a fraction, decimal, or percentage. The denominator must be clear.
Plain language
How much of the whole belongs to one part.
How we use it in AQR
You will use proportions to compare groups of different sizes more fairly than raw counts sometimes allow.
Example question or sentence stem
The proportion of ______ was ______.
Recognize and begin using
Response rate
Full definition
Response rate is the proportion or percentage of invited or eligible participants who actually complete a survey or provide usable responses.
Plain language
How many of the people asked actually responded.
How we use it in AQR
A low response rate may create bias if responders differ from people who did not respond.
Example question or sentence stem
The response rate matters because ______.
Extension vocabulary
Effect size
Full definition
Effect size is a measure of how large or meaningful a difference, relationship, or change is, rather than only whether it exists.
Plain language
How big the difference or relationship actually is.
How we use it in AQR
Extension learners may distinguish a tiny detectable pattern from a difference large enough to matter in real life.
Example question or sentence stem
The effect size matters because ______.
Extension vocabulary
Generalizability
Full definition
Generalizability is the degree to which findings from a sample, setting, or study can reasonably apply to other people, places, times, or situations.
Plain language
How far the result can fairly be extended beyond the original group.
How we use it in AQR
You will connect generalizability to sample quality, context, measurement, and method.
Example question or sentence stem
These results may not generalize to ______ because ______.
Extension vocabulary
Interquartile range
Full definition
The interquartile range, or IQR, is the distance between the first and third quartiles and describes the spread of the middle half of ordered numerical data.
Plain language
The spread of the middle 50 percent of the data.
How we use it in AQR
Extension learners may use the IQR to compare spread while reducing the influence of extreme values.
Example question or sentence stem
The IQR shows that the middle half of the data spans ______.
Extension vocabulary
Margin of error
Full definition
A margin of error is a range that expresses expected sampling uncertainty around an estimate, usually under stated assumptions and a chosen confidence level.
Plain language
A range showing that a sample estimate is not exact.
How we use it in AQR
When surveys report a margin of error, extension learners will interpret close percentages more carefully.
Example question or sentence stem
The margin of error means the true value may be about ______ to ______.
Extension vocabulary
Random sample
Full definition
A random sample is selected by a process that gives each eligible member of the population a known chance of being chosen.
Plain language
A sample chosen by chance instead of convenience.
How we use it in AQR
You will compare random sampling with convenience sampling and explain what each design allows you to conclude.
Example question or sentence stem
This is or is not a random sample because ______.
Extension vocabulary
Skew
Full definition
Skew describes a distribution that stretches farther on one side than the other because values are not balanced around the center.
Plain language
The data lean or stretch more toward one side.
How we use it in AQR
You will use skew to explain why the mean and median may tell different stories.
Example question or sentence stem
The distribution is skewed toward ______ because ______.
Extension vocabulary
Variability
Full definition
Variability is the degree to which data values differ from one another or from a typical value.
Plain language
How spread out or different the values are.
How we use it in AQR
Extension learners compare groups not only by average but also by how consistent or spread out the values are.
Example question or sentence stem
This group shows more variability because ______.

Track Yourself

27 terms in the standard AQR format.

Bias

Causation

Correlation

Dataset

Distribution

Leading question

Observation

Outlier

Pattern

Population

Representative

Sample

Categorical data

Confounding variable

Frequency

Mean

Median

Numerical data

Proportion

Response rate

Effect size

Generalizability

Interquartile range

Margin of error

Random sample

Skew

Variability